Sagara : The Infinite

*You're at the beach - the sun shines bright, children build sandcastles, and people splash around in delight. As you watch those waves crash onto the shore, do you wonder about the mysteries of the deep blue sea? Right from bacteria and fungi to evolved life forms such as mammals and humans, we are all derived from water. Without water, no life exists. The ocean is the supreme water form, making its study an unequivocal necessity to chart human destiny henceforth. 

From the turbulent fury of its waves to the deep abyss of its innermost recesses, the ocean has inspired art, literature, culture, sport, and science like none other. Hokusai’s “The Great Wave off Kanagawa”, an iconic piece of art, is one of the most enduring depictions of the ocean as a reflection of the human spirit - everlasting,  unfathomable, and profound. 

These waves have been battering the same shores for the last 4 billion years. (Pinti, 2005). For much of this time, the environment was anoxygenic, allowing only non-living beings such as thermophiles or extremophiles to survive and reproduce/replicate through chemical evolution, i.e., abiogenesis” (Lal, 2008). Over time, cyanobacteria emerged, producing oxygen and shifting Earth’s environment from an anoxygenic to an oxygenic state (Great Oxygenation Event (GOE)). These changes in the Earth’s biosphere and the advent of eukaryotes approximately 1.8  billion years ago, marked the evolution of complex, multicellular life forms that were aerobic (oxygen-using). The first forms of life thus chemically evolved from this primordial sea. It can be hypothesized that the ocean contained and nurtured the germ of life as we know it today. 

Cultures across the world have feared and revered the ocean and its mighty power to sustain and destroy. The Rigveda begins thus: "In the beginning, darkness was hidden by darkness; all this [world] was an unrecognizable salty ocean [salila].” This sentiment echoes across historical records and religious canons from the Hebrew Bible to Native American folklore. (Witzel, 2015). The sea is the dark beginning of the world - the source of creation and culmination. The legends of great floods that alter landscapes, destroying or giving birth to new civilizations are common across almost every major culture in Eurasia, the Americas, and Africa. The capacity of the ocean to inflict catastrophes has enamoured people for centuries. For example, the tragedy of the Titanic continues to elicit popular interest years after the incident. The largest steamship of its time- 900 feet in length and weighing 46000 tonnes - the Titanic remains an enigma for the mysterious reasons behind its sinking, as well as the glamorous picturization of its passengers and facilities, as in films and documentaries. 

The ocean is also worshipped for the purifying nature of water in the Hindu religion. Water bodies abound in all Hindu religious sites, sprinkled over the head or partaken as “theertha”(blessed water). Believers of religious lifestyles consider Samudra Snana - Ocean Bath, as a sacred rite; it also purifies our bodies and souls, easing our earthly pathways. As quoted from Vairamuthu’s poem, the ocean is also the end for our mortal remains - our reunion with Mother Earth. This “cleansing” motif recurs in Islam (the Quran) and in Shintoism as well. (Indigenous and Local Water Knowledge, Values and Practices, 2023). The  Vishnu Purana recounts the great Samudra Manthana of the Kshira Sagara (Churning of the Ocean) - a tale of righteousness and humility. One of the greatest Indian mythologies -the Ramayana- is a treasure trove of ocean metaphors - the ocean as ideological and physical distance, as an obstacle to be overcome, as a force of nature that enables justice, and much more. 

Oceans are also sites of collective and individual memory, imagination, and history. This is amply visible in literature, cinema, and popular culture. Indian literature, such as the Panchatantra and Sangam literature are often set in seaport cities of yore or chronicle the lives of seafaring communities. Renowned authors across the globe - Shakespeare, Du Maurier, Henry David Thoreau and Melville- have tapped into the endless philosophical and poetical inspiration the ocean holds to craft their masterpieces.  (Weddle et al.) Daphne du Maurier’s “Rebecca”  is a story of a woman haunted by the ghost of her husband’s first wife. In the narrative, the sea reflected the woman’s state of mind - dark and turbulent when she was in turmoil, and calm and soothing when she was at peace.  Greek mythology uses a great deal of the ocean archetype in its narratives, for example, Homer’s The Iliad and the Odyssey features the ocean as the central character. All Greek mythology, in fact, straddles this two-way pathway between life and death, challenge and transformation, struggle and triumph,  and elevation to the Divine. Greek gods such as Oceanus, Poseidon, and Hercules were all bound through stories of the sea and now form a well-known part of popular culture. (Miate & Amin, 2023). The ocean is indeed a vast expanse that mirrors life’s journey- ceaseless, indefinite, and part of a greater whole. The ocean is full of perils, but it is also replete with tales of overcoming. It is as romantic as it is ruthless. Cultures worldwide have bowed down to the ocean. From the Sinu people of Northern Japan to the Finnish Sea Monster, the ocean pervades cultural mores and determines everything from cuisine and lifestyle to traditions and social ethos. (Buschmann, 2020). The world-renowned temple of Mahabalipuram (the Shore Temple) - a UNESCO World Heritage Site- is built on the legends of six pagodas being submerged in the ocean by an angry Indra. (An Introduction to Myths and Legends in India - Original Travel, n.d.). The “Floating City” of Venice, enchanting millions of people, is a city built on a lagoon of 120 little islands interspersed with 177 canals located at the northern extreme of the Adriatic Sea. 

Likewise, the sea has also inspired more colourful and whimsical flights of fancy - mermaids being a case in point. These fabled half-human, half-fish creatures found mention in the narratives of numerous cultures spanning continents. They usually traversed the thin line between danger and seduction. Matsya kanyas feature prominently in cultural anthologies, for example, Suvarnamatsya, the supposed daughter of Ravana, who created obstacles and later aided Hanuman in building a bridge to Lanka. (Fukuoka, 2022) Mermaid sightings have traditionally been seen as a sign of bad luck across the world, but particularly across European countries, foretelling destruction, death, and gloom. Such merpeople range from the ningyo of Japan to the Irish/Scottish Merrow, mermaids have captured the imagination of many a man. They are, till today, synonymous with the term “siren” (derived from Indo-European root words). (On The Origin of Mermaids - Mermaids of Earth, 2021). Similarly, other sea monsters such as the Kraken from Norse mythology and the seven-headed serpent Sesha Naga in Hindu mythology has emerged from man’s dread of what lies in the depths of the fierce and temperamental waters. 

This enduring interest in the ocean is well-founded - it is the source of much of the world’s growth, progress and wealth. In fact, the Indian Ocean was known in Sanskrit as “Ratnakara”- literally a mine of jewels -something Jules Verne’s Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea also attests to in its scene relating deep-sea pearl diving in the Indian Ocean. (Lavery & Hofmeyr, n.d.) The precious stones and minerals under the sea have been used from time immemorial as determinants of socio-cultural status. They form under immense pressure on the ocean floor or from mineral-rich seawater. For example, pearls, diamonds, emeralds and sapphires were difficult to find and procure and represented a hard-won royalty. Till date, this pursuit of rich sea valuables continues, in a more exploitative fashion, an illustration of which is the unscrupulous abalone trade. (Lavery & Hofmeyr, n.d.) (Abalone is prized as an exotic food item and its uniquely shaped pearls are used as raw materials for jewellery and other industries).  Vibrant corals are not merely a feast for the eyes. They have functional purposes in modern medical practice as surgical replacements for bone, while semi-precious stones like aquamarine, serpentine, and ocean jasper are now core elements of the booming wellness industry. 

The ocean is a living, breathing testament to the Earth’s history. About 50 million years ago, water collected on the surface of the earth, but took several million more years to reach the temperature-pH-salinity conditions that enabled the sustenance of life. This evolution distinguished  Earth as a living, breathing ecosystem capable of sustaining life as distinct from its planetary peers. 

The human race has always understood the potential of oceanic masses right from the epipelagic zone (the upper layer that receives sunlight ) to the ocean floor (abyssopelagic zone). Right from the marine voyages and trade of ancient civilizations, oceans have been the channel for the exchange of people, cultures, and wealth. In the Indian subcontinent for instance, from the Indus Valley Civilization to the Gupta Empire, trade across the seas flourished. 

The world as we know it today has evolved across the tides and times of numerous ocean channels. The interface between humans and the ocean increased both in quantum and substance, accelerating discoveries and progress. The primary opportunity the oceans presented was an alternative avenue to mountains for long-distance travel. Thus began the origin of navigation as a science based on astronomy. Celestial navigation set the precedent with constellations like the North Star (Pole Star), the Little Dipper and the Orion Belt acting as true guiding lights for sailors from the Americas to the Pacific Islands. ((Navigating by the Stars - National Maritime Historical Society, 2018)

It was only in 1300 that the magnetic compass - a  pivoted magnetic needle in a glass box, showing the North) was created. In 1492, Christopher Columbus' serendipitous discovery of the Americas, paving the way for the advent of  European colonialism. (It is a myth that Columbus was seeking to debunk the idea of the earth being flat; the spherical nature of the Earth had already been alluded to even in the time of Eratosthenes, in ancient Greece). The sea route to Africa had already been discovered earlier, in 1488. 

In 1757, the sextant was created (an instrument for celestial navigation), soon after the establishment of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich. In 1883, Standard Time was effectuated in America, followed by the recognition of Greenwich as the prime meridian or zero degrees longitude. Advances were significant and speedy - less than two centuries later, we now rely on the Global Positioning System for all our navigation needs.

As much as the ocean facilitated humankind's progress, it also bore witness to some of the greatest human tragedies and brutality. This confidence in conquering the ocean soon manifested as arrogance. The White Man's Burden- the erroneous idea that no territory existed without the Europeans attesting to it and the duty to spread the word of God amongst the supposedly uncivilized masses of the Orient and Dark Continent.  Colonial expeditions to loot and plunder territories across the globe thrived in the centuries to come, as did the invention of ever more advanced tools for navigation. 

The treasures of the Orient and Africa lay ripe for exploitation - trade flourished between the 16th and 18th centuries as colonial powers channelled their new dexterity at sea towards territorial and cultural expansion. The establishment of colonial governments across territories necessitated cultural exchange. Modes of thought, cultures, lifestyles, and ideologies starkly different from one another began to converge more substantially. Indian indigo and muslin, Nigerian palm oil, and Chinese porcelain plied the waters across the Pacific and Atlantic shores. These waters also bore the weight of a barbaric slave trade - a trans-Atlantic movement of African slaves to the Americas (Florida and the Caribbean) to labour on sugar plantations, ripped apart from their families, property, and sense of belonging. 

Despite ebbs and flows, the ocean has remained at the heart of all human activity and endeavours. At present, over 80-90% of trade continues to be transported through sea routes that offer a cost-effective option for bulk goods. The urgency of addressing global warming has also rekindled interest in exploring the mysteries of the deep blue.  

There are the more obvious outputs of ocean expeditions - salt by the barrel load, sand & gravel for construction, minerals like copper, nickel, cobalt, manganese, phosphorus etc., for numerous purposes - medical, nutritional, agricultural and other scientific purposes. and fish, molluscs & crustaceans for food. Several atypical uses of ocean resources have also been made - the use of marine resources in the cosmetics industry, for example, has seen exponential growth. Phytoplankton, seaweed, marine sponges, and shark fish, for instance, are marine organisms that contain anti-inflammatory, anti-wrinkling, anti-ageing, and collagen-boosting compounds, making them apt for use in beauty products. Algae such as Porphyra, Laminaria, and Chlorella are also used in cuisines, especially East Asian fare, as a rich source of protein, minerals, and vitamins. 

Cutting-edge research continues apace in the space of oceanography. Artificial Intelligence (AI) presents innumerable possibilities to observe and study marine ecosystems. These include coral reef mapping, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), acoustic-based analysis of species distribution, and machine learning models to predict trends such as ocean acidification. AI and Machine Learning enable rapid, real-time mapping of changes in ocean ecosystems to aid early detection, response and conservation strategies.  (Oluwafemi Khoa, 2023). The development of highly advanced robotic machinery has enabled commercially lucrative seafloor mining. From diamonds, manganese nodules, and rare earth elements to iron sands and phosphorite nodules, the seabed is a cache of riches used extensively in manufacturing and technology. Of particular interest is the newly developed ability to mine deep-sea hydrothermal vents that have solidified high-grade minerals and sulfides with applications across a variety of chemical and industrial processes.

The ocean even finds its way into our daily lives in unexpected ways. 95% of internet traffic is transmitted via undersea cables and undersea cloud computing is the data centre of the future, given the low cooling costs compared to land. (12 Robots That Could Make (or Break) the Oceans, 2020). Other advancements include deep sea sampling equipment, aquapods, and biomimetic roots that spell exponential growth for marine-derived pharmaceuticals, offshore underwater farming/aquaculture, and environmental monitoring respectively. 

As climate change contributes to melting glaciers and rising sea levels, studies in the cryosphere and polar science are gaining increasing relevance. Likewise, geodesy and lithospheric transformation study the geometry of the earth, crust and upper mantle in 3D (3-dimension). This field provides tools to measure plate-tectonics, center-of-mass variation hydrological changes and the possibilities/probabilities of extreme events e.g., earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis etc. (Geodesy and Lithospheric Deformation, 2024). Bioluminescence is a naturally occurring phenomenon among some marine organisms such as jellyfish and dinoflagellates, whereby they emit light from their own bodies to defend against predators, hunt for food, and attract mates. This process has been mimicked across industries to find solutions to various problems. For example, bioluminescent genetically modified bacteria can be biosensors for detecting pollutants and toxins. Similarly, the potential of bioluminescent enzymes like luciferase is being tested to detect harmful microbial contaminants and as assays for drug screening in the pharmaceutical industry. This process is also used in biomedical and biotechnology research to create non-invasive diagnostic devices.  

Oceans store, distribute, and regulate heat from the sun across different parts of the earth. Ocean temperatures determine wind movement and rainfall on Earth. The ocean acts as a carbon buffer (absorbing 20-30% of atmospheric carbon emissions) and pumps oxygen into the atmosphere through phytoplankton. The energy-generating potential of the ocean through tidal waves, offshore winds, and gas hydrates remains immense - with only a fraction of it having been tapped to date. Wave energy can generate up to 11400 terawatt-hours/year (the output of which would be equivalent to about 400 nuclear power plants). (12 Robots That Could Make (or Break) the Oceans, 2020). Shale gas is another high-potential resource, concentrated mainly across the Green River states of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming in the United States. Canada, Estonia, Russia, and Australia are other sources of shale gas with varying mineral content and ease/cost of extraction.  The U.S. alone has 4 trillion cubic meters of shale gas resources, while 157 trillion cubic meters is the recoverable potential globally. Likewise, offshore wind energy can generate up to 50% more energy than onshore wind farms, due to more consistent and strong winds in coastal areas. Another possible alternative presents itself embedded in frozen soil, deep seabed sediments, and continental margins - methane hydrates. (Stephenson, 2018)These methane hydrates offer great potential as an energy source as 160 to 180 cubic meters of methane gas can be obtained from one cubic meter of methane hydrate. However, though feasible at present, the techniques for extraction remain time-consuming and require high investment - more economical measures need to be evolved to make it a more viable option. 

However, even the mighty ocean has a threshold - it promptly reflects exploitation.  Rising temperatures/environmental shifts in ocean waters have diminished aquatic diversity and negatively affect marine microbe communities and species of algae that are indicators of ocean health.  This spells disaster for the ecosystem as a whole since algae sequester carbon and contribute to climate change mitigation. Ocean temperature fluctuations can introduce greater inconsistencies and extreme events that can be disastrous to human life and well-being. Human-generated pollution makes its way back to us in many different forms. Right in the middle of the Pacific Ocean is a patch of garbage - decades of (mostly) plastic waste that has accumulated in the eddies between Japan, Japan, the Hawaiian Islands and California. This accumulated mass weighs about 80,000 tonnes which disintegrates gradually into microplastics that further find its way into our bodies through consumption of marine products. 

Oceans are the primary sensors for climate change - a 1.1 degree Celsius global warming will increase the frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events such as hurricanes and marine heatwaves. Other adverse effects include coral bleaching, rise in sea levels and the consequent likelihood of flooding and change in currents, as well as drastic reductions in biodiversity and diminished carbon sequestration capacity. All this despite the fact that the ocean absorbs 90% of the excess heat energy generated and the cryosphere absorbs another 4%. Humankind needs to move ahead with caution in the upcoming decades to avoid devastation and possibly the end of the planet as we know it. 

The ocean reminds us of a sublime, yet delicate balance pre-ordained in the Universe. Consider this - oceans make up 71% of earth’s surface, 60-70% of the human body is made up of water, and 60% makes up mammalian and multicellular organisms’ body weight. This ratio is too precise, too extensively present to ignore - it reminds us time and again of the dire consequences of destabilizing this equilibrium. It is a reminder for us to live in harmony with the world around us, with due respect to the intricate stability around us. To sustain this key resource, our collective consumption must not exceed its pace of regeneration. The ocean must be preserved in as pristine a form as possible, in custody for future generations. 

Dr H.S. Nagaraja 

Manaswini Vijayakumar 

(With inputs from Dr. Venkata Krishna Bayineni and Dr. Ajit Singh) 

Citations 

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